2026年真题33

Listen to a talk on a psychology podcast (woman) Ever wonder why some rewards motivate better than others when you’re trying to change behavior? Many people think of rewards as tangible things, money, candy, gift cards. These are what psychologists call extrinsic rewards because they come from an external source, but in the 1960s, psychologist David Premack had a different idea. Instead of giving people tangible things, why not use activities people already enjoy? This became Premack’s principle. Here are the basics. You can use something someone already likes to do, or a high-probability behavior to motivate an activity they avoid or a low-probability behavior. Here’s an example. If a child loves playing outside but hates cleaning their room, you make outdoor play the reward for cleaning. First clean, then play. It’s simple but powerful. Premack believed this strategy works better than candy or money, because it motivates by tapping into what psychologists call intrinsic rewards, things that feel good because we genuinely enjoy them. Tangible rewards often lose their appeal, but favorite activities stay motivating. By linking something less appealing to something naturally fun, you create a lasting incentive that feels personal and meaningful. Think about it. If you’re trying to get yourself to the gym more often, you might promise yourself extra time on a hobby you love after your workout. You’re not bribing yourself with something artificial or external. You’re connecting the new habit to something that already matters to you. That’s why Premack’s principle is still relevant today, and not just for parents and teachers.

Listen to a talk in a chemistry class (man) Back in 1938, a chemist named Roy Plunkett was working to create a new refrigerant, a new cooling substance. Plunkett was looking for an industrial refrigerant to replace the ones that existed at the time, which were toxic and flammable. Some, for example, could cause fatal poisoning if leaked. He was working with a gas called tetrafluoroethylene, or TFE, a highly flammable refrigerant. Plunkett stored TFE gas in cylinders, but one day he noticed that a cylinder of TFE no longer had gas in it. What was there? Well, powder, a solid. The TFE gas had solidified into this new powdery substance, polytetrafluoroethylene, or PTFE. What made PTFE remarkable was its almost unprecedented stability, its resistance to heat, chemicals, and friction. It didn’t react with other substances, making it ideal for industrial applications like parts used in the aerospace industry, also medical devices and electronics. Eventually, PTFE began to be used in consumer products. Ever heard of Teflon, the nonstick coating on frying pans? That was PTFE and it was used in homes around the world for many years. These days you may be more likely to use stainless steel or cast-iron cookware due to concerns with PTFE. Nevertheless, this is a classic example of serendipity in science. Plunkett wasn’t trying to invent a non-stick surface. He stumbled upon it. This kind of discovery isn’t rare. Scientists discovered X-rays, penicillin and many other scientific and medical innovations while trying to do something else.

Listen to a talk in a biology class (man) I’m sure you’re familiar with ostriches, the large, flightless birds from Africa, and you’ve heard of Australian emus. There are several species of large, flightless birds on different continents. They’re all from the same group called paleognaths and are genetically related, meaning they’re descendants of the same ancestor species that evolved over time into the present-day species. But how did they end up on different continents? One theory was rooted in Earth’s geological history. You see, until one-hundred-and-seventy-five million years ago, Earth’s continents were all together as one giant supercontinent. Later, they slowly drifted apart. So maybe paleognath’s flightless ancestor species lived on that supercontinent, and the descendants evolved into separate species after it split into today’s landmasses. However, recent genetic research has found that the ancestor paleognath hadn’t appeared until many million years after the supercontinent had already broken apart. There goes that idea. So how did the birds end up this way? Well, in 2025, researchers studied the fossilized breastbone of an ancient paleognath called the Lithornis, which could be the ancestor of today’s paleognaths. And from the breastbone shape, they determined the Lithornis could fly great distances. It must have established populations on Africa, Australia and elsewhere.

Listen to a talk in a history class (man) How did you wake up this morning? You probably had some kind of alarm. Well, what did people do long ago in ancient Greece, when people relied on natural indicators like the sun’s position for time? One clever solution was the clepsedra, a water clock. This was essentially a container filled with water that drained at a steady rate. The dropping water level marked the passage of time and at a certain point, it triggered a mechanism to produce sound, effectively serving as an alarm clock. Ingenious, right? Fast forward to the late nineteenth century when the industrial age came into full swing. The need for punctuality in factories led to the development of wind-up mechanical alarm clocks. These devices, with their recognizable bells were widely used until the twentieth century, brought about a significant change, the electric alarm clock. By eliminating the need to wind the clock, these electric models revolutionized how people manage their mornings, offering convenience and accuracy like never before. In the late twentieth century, digital technology further transformed out alarm clocks with LED displays and snooze buttons, adding more layers of utility. These devices serve an important function, and our relationship with alarm clocks also reflects cultural evolution. Clocks transition from simple time keepers to indispensable companions in our daily routines, influencing how we perceive time management and punctuality. And if you really want to talk about an indispensable companion in our daily routine, you might have one in your pocket, the mobile phone.